PAPER+DRAFT

I. Case Study as Introduction (DONE)

Success in Texas
Imagine a fifth grade classroom where the classic foam ball solar system projects are replaced by full color mathematically animated versions created on mini computers. For students in Mr. Matt Cook’s class at Trinity Meadows Intermediate School in Keller, Texas, standard paper-and-pencil exercises across the curriculum have been replaced by HTC 6800 Smartphones running Go-Know software (Schachter 2009). This example is one of many where, to a large degree, individual teachers are seizing the opportunity to engage their students in meaningful instruction using dynamic and current technology.

Cell phones and their advanced cousins – smart phones – are changing the way our society interacts and communicates in numerous ways. Schools are a key proving ground for future generations of technology users. In this assessment we will see how a considered approach to incorporating smart phone technology into a classroom setting, as courseware, benefits the students’ educational development. In the course of our research into existing best practices, we came to understand that the successful use of cell or smart phones as courseware typically has three characteristics: the phones are school-provided, used in elementary school classrooms, and are used as legitimate courseware as opposed to being a special treat or reward (despite their positive affective association).

If smart phones are being used in a school setting as courseware, they are getting there in one of two ways. Either the school develops a smart phone program and provides phones to children, much as it might establish a computer lab or set up laptop carts, or students are using their own personal devices (BYOD) in a formal program or through surreptitious use.

In surveying the literature, time and time again we encountered pilot projects where students were each given the same model of phone and provided access to the programs and apps purchased by the school for their use (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction 2011 and Schacter 2009). The smart phones are genuine courseware because they are school property. Projects, such as the “Success in Texas” example noted as an introduction, and other programs in North Carolina, Ohio, and New York, all choose to approach this task using a similar mindset – and each has been successful. Table 1 indicates the range of phone hardware used, along with the service carrier, the funder, and whether or not students were limited to school-only use of the phones to do schoolwork.
 * Table 1.** Myriad Hardware, Carriers, and Funders Schools Can Utilize in Implementing a Formal Smart Phone as Courseware Program.


 * ** Jurisdiction & Grade Level of Students ** || ** Hardware/Smart Phone Used ** || ** Carrier ** || ** Funder ** || ** In-School Only or At-Home Use Allowed ** ||
 * Keller, Texas (Gr. 5) || HTC 6800 || Verizon || HTC, Verizon, and Program makers all donated materials || In-School ||
 * St. Mary’s City, Ohio (Gr. 3-6) || Samsung || Verizon || Verizon Foundation || At-Home Use Allowed ||
 * North Carolina (Gr. 8-10) ~ statewide || Alltel || Qualcomm || Wireless Reach Initiative || At-Home Use Allowed ||
 * Garnerville, NY (Gr. 6-8) || Palm Treo || Sprint || School-system funded || In School ||

In each example in Table 1, the project was deemed to be successful by higher-ups in the school district and either already had been expanded to additional grade levels or is being adapted for further adoption throughout an entire school system (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction 2011 and Schacter 2009). Throughout the course of our research, we did not locate any instance of a formal smart phone program being scaled back or abandoned. We therefore conclude that school-provided smart phones programs are a best practice when it comes to using smart phones as courseware.

[INSERT SECTION ON FUNDING, WHERE $670 NUMBER COMES FROM AND INCLUDE HYPERLINK TO LIST OF FUNDING SOURCES FOR GRANTS]

When school-provided phones are not possible or practical, some schools may experiment with formalized BYOD programs. School districts in Alvarado, Texas, Katy, Texas, and Carpentersville, Illinois all have students bring in devices from home to reduce procurement costs at the school level. Students who do not have access to phones are provided one by the school. Although there are financial savings, information officers in each district acknowledge common problems: screen size differential and lack of //Flash// on the iPhone. These, of course, become nonissues when the school provides identical phones for all students and does not rely on BYOD. Interestingly, security in these instances has not proved a concern. In each case noted, schools have students connect at school using the wireless network with its built-in content filters. Students sign-in to the network as a teacher might with a set user name and password (Ullman 2011).

Where cell phones are “banned” in schools, teachers who wish to use phones as courseware rely on students to be willing to break rules and take out phones in class (Sieff 2011, Tennessee High School Librarian 2011, and Virginia High School Librarian 2010). By using apps and programs like QR (quick response) codes, Poll Every Where, and Yodio students are exposed to dynamic content linked to their schoolwork. Potential pitfalls with this approach include operating system incompatibility with certain programs, service plan differences between students, and the possibility that some students may not possess a smart phone to use. When students use their phones “from home” other negative behaviors may become manifest, such as sexting and cyberbullying, both serious concerns especially at the middle school level (Sieff 2011 and Tennessee Middle School Librarian 2011).

Returning to formal BYOD programs like those in Katy and Alvarado, Texas, we found that one of the first things school information officers did was ensure adequate Internet filtering was in place **before** students began using phones as courseware (Ullman 2011). Why? One of the chief concerns expressed by school officials and parents when it comes to the use of phones in schools is the paradox of student safety coupled with student misbehaviors such as cheating and being too distracted to allow genuine learning to occur (Byrne 2011, Dodds and Mason 2005, Johnson 2010, and Sieff 2011).

We find that this behavior on the part of adult school personnel may be tied to a person’s instinctive resistance to change of any kind. This hesitation is normal. When we look at a school setting, we understand that specific research addresses the particular reluctance for teachers and school administrators to adapt to changes in instructional methods, especially those relating to technology. Hall and Hord (1987) proposed and have developed and refined their //concerns-based adoption model (CBAM)// over the past three decades (Hall, Wallace & Dossett 1973). This model shows four levels of concern that need to be addressed before reasonably expecting school officials to incorporate any new technologies. In essence, Hall and Hord (1987) find that teachers first tend to question the idea of change in their classroom practices: wondering “Is this new device even needed or worth it?” Second, teachers may be personally anxious about the new device: asking, “Can I learn how to use this?” Third, how can the device be used or managed in the classroom: “How do I control the use of this device and show mastery to my students” -- essentially a power issue. Finally, teachers **ultimately** want to know that a new device can make a real difference for their students’ learning. Hall and Hord (1987) conclude that when these concerns are assuaged, innovations come to a classroom more rapidly. They also note the importance of a facilitator, such as a school librarian, principal, or computer teacher, in lessening said concerns.

Amidst these adoption concerns we also find those educators and school administrators who believe that smartphones in schools give students the tools to cheat on assessments or become distracted during class. However, when the schools themselves provide the devices to students these issues are easily overcome. School-provided phones allow the schools to control the devices' capabilities (Nagel 2011). But more importantly, when educators follow the best practices in teaching the issues of distraction and cheating become moot points. Best practices in education tell us that students are most engaged when they are actively involved in class, completing problem-based tasks to show what they have learned rather than simply regurgitating facts on a multiple choice test. When students are actively engaged, there is less room for distraction, and when assessments are constructed in such a way that higher-order thinking is expected and required, cheating with mobile devices becomes less of a risk.Therefore, if class activities center on collaboration and technology-rich lessons and if class assessments require students to creatively solve problems, could this reduce cheating and eliminate some of the concerns educators have about agreeing to allow smartphones in the classroom?As Soloway has stated,"We shouldn't be asking, 'Why should schools adopt mobile technologies?' No! We should be asking: 'How can schools be so cynical, so backwards-looking, and prevent our children, the children entrusted to the school's care, to be allowed to benefit from a technology that clearly is highly beneficial.' Schools need to take their heads out of the sand, be brave and step forward, and truly help the children entrusted to them" (Nagel 2011). One technology coordinator who successfully helped implement cell phones in the classroom noted, “The students were more engaged.There were less behavioral issues, and the parents were saying that they’d buy their kids this phone before they'd buy a PlayStation" (Schachter 2009).

Once schools realize the benefits of smartphones as courseware and choose to embrace them and provide them to students, the questions may be asked: "What device is best? What particular phone do we choose for our students?" Case studies and schools already successfully using smartphones in the classsroom seem to focus less on these hardware questions and more on the issue of software. If phones are indeed being provided by schools in order to engage students, the next issue seems to be choosing the most useful software and applications to use on whatever device has been chosen. In planning and creating effective learning opportunities with the smartphones, educators and administrators will have to consider the operating system on which the school's phones run. And while some applications may only work with Google's Android system and other apps may only be available for iPhone's iOs system, there are some programs that are "device neutral"; they can be used on any device or operating system, which will be useful when students extend their work outside of the classroom on their own (or their parents' own) devices (Ullman 2011). However, when schools provide the phones and one particular device is being used throughout the learning environment, teachers can utilize software programs that best fit their particular devices, their teaching style, and the assignment's purpose. Most of the apps and programs we have explored are those "device neutral", cross-platform programs that will work for students and teacher both inside the homogeneously supplied classroom and out.

First, programs such as StudyBoost and StudyBlue take practicing course material to a new, more interactive level. These programs are essentially an updated take on the age-old practice of flashcards. With these programs, users set up an account, create a personalized bank of questions, and then study their material on a mobile device. StudyBoost sends the user SMS messages directly to the phone (or messages to a favorite social networking site) and the user responds back receiving a "correct" or "incorrect" message. StudyBlue provides the users with digital flashcards that appear directly on the device's screen for manipulating and practicing with a touch on the screen. And while practicing basic vocabulary and core course content with these programs can break monotony, many naysayers "don't consider a flashcard application transformative." In fact, these programs are just the beginning (Schachter 2009).

Another application progressing the use of smartphones in educational settings is PollEverywhere. Similar to the student response systems popular in today's schools, PollEverywhere allows teachers to set up a poll question and have their students text in their responses. The program then tabulates the results, allowing the teacher instant feedback and the abililty to discuss students's responses and reteach when necessary. What puts PollEverywhere at an advantage over the student response devices is that this automatic assessment tool can be done with a device, a smartphone, that has the ability to run applications beyond student polling. While a set of 32 student response devices will cost approximately $2700, a mobile device can serve this same purpose while also completing many other engaging tasks as well. PollEverywhere is available as a cross-platform tool. Additionally, Quick Response (QR) codes can be generated and scanned on the varying operating systems. These two-dimensional bar codes can be read by a downloadable bar code reader on a smartphone. By scanning a QR code, users are taken to a a variety of encoded information: webpages, video clips, text, or other data are accessed with just a simple snap. In classrooms these QR codes become crafty ways to link students to important announcements, video clips, online articles, or other pertinent Web content.

Some excellent applications are not device-neutral, but should not be ignored depending upon the type of hardware a school purchases. These more device-specific devices include Yodio, GoKnow, and popular Microsoft applications. A combination of "you" and "audio", Yodio allows users to create their own audio, an "everyman's system for creating podcasts" in wich users record themselves using their mobile phone's microphone (yodio.com). Recording the audio is as simple as leaving a voicemail message, and the audio can be linked to images in order to create a "rich-media" final product. As Yodio's final products require a Flash player, they will not be compatible with phones running on the iOs system. GoKnow is a set of mobile device applications specifically designed for schools to use alongside the Windows Mobile operating system. With GoKnow students can "create, report, draw, animate, view grades, upload completed projects and more" (goknow.com). Additionally, some schools are turning the smartphones into minicomputers with the use of mobile Microsoft Office applications such as Word and Excel. But experts in the field of smartphones as courseware point out that in the world of PCs, mo matter if a computer is a Dell, a Gateway, a Sony, etc.,” one puts a layer of software on that device, and then from a user's perspective all those different devices are the same. That is what is going to happen shortly in the mobile device space. Different companies are going to build a layer of software that makes every smart phone--Android, [Windows Phone 7], iOS, etc.--appear the same to the teacher and the student” (Nagel 2011).

When Matt Cook in Keller, Texas put smartphones capable of running these interactive applications in his students' hands, he got results. And these results, we must remember, these animated, mathematically accurate solar system models were happening in an elementary school classroom. Kyle Menchofer, a technology coordinator at St. Mary's City in Ohio, implemented a program using cellphones in grades 3-6 classrooms. These 630 students were using the phones to "type papers in Microsoft Word, use Excel spreadsheets for math problems, and use GoKnow software for animation. One student, for example, created a minimovie using slides to show a math problem and included the steps in solving the problem" (Schachter 2009). We believe these programs and other similar programs in Katy, Texas, Spring Valley, Illinois,and Southgate, Michigan prove that implementing smartphone programs in elementary classrooms is a best practice for using smartphones as courseware.

Elementary schools seem to be the best fit for these smartphone programs at this time for two main reasons. First, the serious issues of cyberbullying and sexting, mentioned previously, are problems today among teens ages 13-17 (internetsafety101.org). Of course precautions against these behaviors will still want to be taken at the elementary level, but the younger age of the students and the fact that the devices will be school provided make these safety issues less of a concern. The second reason using the phones at the elementary level is concluded to be a best practice is because there is little to no learning curve for students using the devices.Today's youngsters are already expert users of this technology. They have been playing on their parents' phones while waiting in grocery store lines and many elementary students have cell phones of their own. Whereas other educational technologies might require schools to setup the technology, find a way to integrate it in the curriculum, and then spend class time teaching kids to use it, cell phones come to the classroom needing little or no support. The students are "generally already expert users" and specialized support staff is not necessary since those that are newcomers to the technology have many experienced users to learn from right in the same classroom (McCaffrey 2011).

There is one final conclusion that should be noted about using school-purchased mobile devices in elementary classrooms. Our research shows that in order to promote quality learning, these devices must be implemented for use as learning tools and not simply as entertaining toys. With the use of the aforementioned software applications, cell phones can become serious learning aides. The smartphones have an inherent ability to engage today’s learners. According to Soloway, chief executive of GoKnow, “we adults brought laptops into schools, and they are a yawn, as are netbooks because the kids see cell phone as their generation's technology” (Nagel 2011). Furthermore, Soloway states that the devices allow for constant, “everywhere, all the time”, portable learning. Smartphones are becoming part of a working adult’s essential toolbox, and educators should be instructing today’s young people on the ways the tools can become a useful tool for them as well. Soloway states “We need to do 21st century education in the same ways we are doing 21st century commerce, 21st century health, etc. There are risks; absolutely. But staying where we are in schools--using 19th century technology and fooling ourselves that we are teaching 21st century skills and content--is truly doing our students a huge disservice. You can't teach 21st century skills and content with 18th century paper and pencil tool” (Nagel 2011). So on a field trip, the devices should aid students in writing up a reflection of their day, during a science lab investigation, the device helps record observations instantly, and after reading a novel, a podcast can be immediately created on the smartphone. Therefore, we believe the use of this device goes beyond the novelty of playing educational games. It is important to use the smartphone as a tool, teaching students how such a device can be used in the workplaces of the real-world.

[ALLYSON – MY NOTES ARE SKETCHY HERE – IS THIS WHERE WE TRANSITION TO YOUR SECTION ON ED PSYCH? HERE IS YOUR TEXT FROM THE PRESENTATION, IF SO:] The best practices in education tell us that students need to be ACTIVELY involved in class, completing problem based tests to show what they’ve learned rather than sitting and listening to the SAGE ON THE STAGE and regurgitating facts on a multiple choice test. If a teacher constructs assessments that require higher-order thinking rather than just recall of information, could this reduce cheating and therefore eliminate some of the concerns educators have about agreeing to allow smartphones in the classroom?

IV. *short section* Students' Needs (vis a vis educational psychology): explore concepts of need for arousal, authentic experiences,etc. a.) faciliates collaboration with others, formative assessments, active tasks (rather than passive listening)

V. MODELS FOR SUCCESS a) reference opening case study b) note other models mentioned in our presentation c) prevalence of grant-making as key to success of early projects (chart of prominent funders?), touch on e-rate but explore more in "Financial Costs"

Once schools realize the benefits of smartphones as courseware and choose to embrace them and provide them to students, the questions may be asked: "What device is best? What particular phone do we choose for our students?" Case studies and schools already successfully using smartphones in the classsroom seem to focus less on these hardware questions and more on the issue of software. If phones are indeed being provided by schools in order to engage students, the next issue seems to be choosing the most useful software and applications to use on whatever device has been chosen. In planning and creating effective learning opportunities with the smartphones, educators and administrators will have to consider the operating system on which the school's phones run. And while some applications may only work with Google's Android system and other apps may only be available for iPhone's iOs system, there are some programs that are "device neutral"; they can be used on any device or operating system, which will be useful when students extend their work outside of the classroom on their own (or their parents' own) devices (Ullman 2011). However, when schools provide the phones and one particular device is being used throughout the learning environment, teachers can utilize software programs that best fit their particular devices, their teaching style, and the assignment's purpose. Most of the apps and programs we have explored are those "device neutral", cross-platform programs that will work for students and teacher both inside the homogeneously supplied classroom and out.

First, prorgrams such as StudyBoost and StudyBlue take practicing course material to a new, more interactive level. These programs are essentially an updated take on the age-old practice of flashcards. With these programs, users set up an account, create a personalized bank of questions, and then study their material on a mobile device. StudyBoost sends the user SMS messages directly to the phone (or messages to a favorite social networking site) and the user responds back receiving a "correct" or "incorrect" message. StudyBlue provides the users with digital flashcards that appear directly on the device's screen for manipulating and practicing with a touch on the screen. And while practicing basic vocabulary and core course content with these programs can break monotony, many naysayers "don't consider a flashcard application transformative." In fact, these programs are just the beginning (Schachter 2009).

Another application progressing the use of smartphones in educational settings is PollEverywhere. Similar to the student response systems popular in today's schools, PollEverywhere allows teachers to set up a poll question and have their students text in their responses. The program then tabulates the results, allowing the teacher instant feedback and the abililty to discuss students's responses and reteach when necessary. What puts PollEverywhere at an advantage over the student response devices is that this automatic assessment tool can be done with a device, a smartphone, that has the ability to run applications beyond student polling. While a set of 32 student response devices will cost approximately $2700, a mobile device can serve this same purpose while also completing many other engaging tasks as well. PollEverywhere is available as a cross-platform tool. Additionally, Quick Response (QR) codes can be generated and scanned on the varying operating systems. These two-dimensional bar codes can be read by a downloadable bar code reader on a smartphone. By scanning a QR code, users are taken to a a variety of encoded information: webpages, video clips, text, or other data are accessed with just a simple snap. In classrooms these QR codes become crafty ways to link students to important announcements, video clips, online articles, or other pertinent Web content.

Some excellent applications are not device-neutral, but should not be ignored depending upon the type of hardware a school purchases. These more device-specific devices include Yodio, GoKnow, and popular Microsoft applications. A combination of "you" and "audio", Yodio allows users to create their own audio, an "everyman's system for creating podcasts" in wich users record themselves using their mobile phone's microphone (yodio.com). Recording the audio is as simple as leaving a voicemail message, and the audio can be linked to images in order to create a "rich-media" final product. As Yodio's final products require a Flash player, they will not be compatible with phones running on the iOs system. GoKnow is a set of mobile device applications specifically designed for schools to use alongside the Windows Mobile operating system. With GoKnow students can "create, report, draw, animate, view grades, upload completed projects and more" (goknow.com). Additionally, some schools are turning the smartphones into minicomputers with the use of mobile Microsoft Office applications such as Word and Excel.

When Matt Cook put smartphones capable of running these interactive type of applications in his students' hands, he got results. And these results, these animated, mathematically accurate solar system models, we must remember, were happening in an elementary school classroom.

VI. Hardware options a.) How can the hardware be provided? i. Students bringing their own devices ii. the school supplements for those students who don't have devices iii. the school exclusively provides devices 1.) If the school provides devices, the phones' capabilities can be controlled

VII. Software and Operating Systems -- compare the software to functionality with assorted OSs and show this in a chart

a.) using tools, such as Web 2.0, that are "device neutral"-- “A lot of programs and resources are Web based or going up to the cloud, but on a small device the Web can be a problem. For instance, iPhones don’t have Flash. We have to know that kids will get the content.” (from T&L March article)

b.) Study Boost, Study Blue For many years, students have been using (or encouraged to use) flashcards to study for exams and ensure that course material is mastered. However, flashcards handwritten on index cards or torn notebook paper offer little excitement to today's students. Both StudyBoost and StudyBlue take the flashcard study method to new heights, allowing students to study on the go on their mobile device by simply signing up for a free account. StudyBoost allows users to set-up an account, create a personalized bank of questions, and then study the material on their mobile device through text messaging or via their favorite social media site like Facebook or Yahoo! Messenger. For example, in setting up a question bank to study US states and their captiols, users will be sent a text message that reads: "What is the capital of Tennessee?" Users will respond to the text with their chosen answer and StudyBoost will text back with a response such as "correct" or "incorrect." StudyBoost users can share question banks with friends or even make their study question bank public, thus making it easy for friends within a certain class to share their study materials with one another or for a teacher to share his or her study questions with a large group of students. Any smartphone with SMS text messaging capabilities is able to run the StudyBoost application. INCLUDE A SCREENSHOT With StudyBlue, students are also able to make online flashcards and study on the go. StudyBlue claims to have taken its inspiration from students who "long to apply the same technologies to studying that [students] use every day to find information and communicate"; that is the students' laptop, but more increasingly, their smartphone. StudyBlue offers apps in both the iPhone and Android markets, though any device with Internet access will allow users to try their hand at self-created flashcards. This new-fangled flashcard program differs from StudyBoost in that the flashcards appear directly on the screen for manipulating rather than responding to questions through text or instant messaging. INCLUDE A SCREENSHOT

c.) Yodio A combination of "you" and "audio", Yodio allows users to create their own audio, an "everyman's system for creating podcasts" in which users record themselves using a phone's microphone. Recording the audio with Yodio is truly as simple as leaving a voice mail message. The first step is to setup a Yodio account, linking a username to a certain phone number that will be used for the recording. Users then call Yodio's toll-free number from the registered phone and record their audio. When users log back into Yodio, their recorded audio awaits. But Yodio goes beyond the normal podcast by allowing its users to synchronize their voice recordings to digital photographs or images. Yodio markets itself as "sight and sound combined into a unique form of broadcasting" where "this new form of rich-media broadcasting supports voice-narrated photo presentations that can be easily shared throughout the internet." Yodio's final product could be used by teachers hoping to share podcasts with students or by students who are sharing information for a class presentation. It should be noted that Yodio's final products require a Flash Player to be viewed. Therefore, some phones with the iOs operating system, namely the iPhone, will be unable to view the final products. The recording could be done via an iPhone, but a device with a Flash player is needed to be able to see this "unique form of broadcasting." POSSIBLY INCLUDE LINK TO THE YODIO WE MADE FOR PRESENTATIONS

d.) QR Codes Quick Response (QR) codes are seen in many different venues as of late: plant tags at the local greenhouse, magazine ads, and on business cards. Are schools becoming the next venue to adopt this popular trend? These popular QR codes are two-dimensional bar codes that can be read by a downloadable bar code reader on a smartphone. By scanning a QR code, users are taken to a a variety of encoded information: webpages, video clips, text, or other data are accessed with just a simple snap. Most of these QR readers are free to download and many different reader apps are available in both the Android and iOs markets, making QR codes another device neutral application for today's schools and classrooms. Among the readers available are Kaywa Reader, QRC Reader, Paperlinks, NeoReader, and ScanLife. So how might they be used by today's teachers and students? A QR code is quite simple for teachers or students to generate given the code makers available from Kaywa QR-Code, Likify, QR Code Generator, and Google's goo.gl. Once school personnel has learned to use these makers, they might generate QR codes to include on a test study guide that will link students to useful websites or tutorials related to the test content. They could place QR codes inside of books to link to online book trailers or QR codes could be posted on posters around the school to provide more information on the Web about upcoming events. Student QR code makers might use them to enhance the content they make, too. For example, at Springfield Township School the students involved in writing the school newspaper are planning to use QR codes in their print edition to link their readers to online features: a QR code will link to a clip from a school sporting event or a QR code will allow readers to see student interviews via video.

e.) Go Know

f.) Mobile Office products

g.) Poll Everywhere Cost of Promethean ActivExpressions- set of 32 costs $2695 Cost of Promethan ActiVotes- set of 32 costs $1795 (information via Academic Superstore)

h.) We are only at the beginning of this type of software i.) "flashcard program is not revolutionary" ii.) multimedia creation courses in secondary to then create applications for the elementary students (District Admin article)

VIII. Financial Costs a) explore lifecycle costs of different smart phones and then compare to laptops and desktop computers b) e-rate *note here as support for using school-provided phones rather than students' own phones* c.) Alvarado TX school district= shift from laptop program to BYOD; a need for public filtered WiFi

IX. Conclusion [Opportunity Costs] a) widen discussion back out from financial costs to opportunity losses if this technology is not embraced. Reference educ. psych concepts in particular. Acknowledge quickly evolving technology and need for students to be able to rapidly adapt to new tech as it develops to be successful 21st century citizens.

REFERENCES

Hall, Gene E. and Shirley M. Hord. 1987. //Change in Schools: Facilitating the Process//. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Hall, Gene E., Richard C. Wallace Jr., & William F. Dossett. 1973. //A Developmental Conceptualization of the Adoption Process within Educational Institutions//. Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin Research and Development Center for Teacher Education.

Madden, Mary. 2010. “Four or More: The New Demographic.” Presented to LITA/American Library Association, June 27. Washington, D.C.

Schachter, Ron. 2009. “Mobile Devices in the Classroom.” //District Administration// (November/December): 30-36.

School Library Journal. 2011. "Which of the following tools do you use in your school or library?" //School Library Journal// (January): 15.